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In order to correctly read and understand what a particular diagram or drawing related to electricity means, you need to know how the icons and symbols depicted on them are deciphered. A large amount of information contains letter designations elements in electrical diagrams defined by various regulatory documents. All of them are displayed in Latin characters in the form of one or two letters.

One-letter symbolism of elements

Letter codes corresponding to individual types of elements most widely used in electrical circuits are combined into groups designated by one symbol. Letter designations correspond to GOST 2.710-81. For example, the letter "A" refers to the "Devices" group, which consists of lasers, amplifiers, telecontrol devices and others.

In the same way, the group denoted by the symbol "B" is deciphered. It consists of devices that convert non-electrical quantities into electrical ones, which do not include generators and power supplies. This group is complemented by analog or multi-digit converters as well as indicating or measuring sensors. The components themselves included in the group are microphones, loudspeakers, pickups, detectors of ionizing radiation, thermoelectric sensing elements, etc.

All letter designations corresponding to the most common elements are combined in a special table for ease of use:

The first alphabetic character required for reflection in the marking	Group of basic types of elements and devices	Elements that make up the group (the most typical examples)
	Devices	Lasers, masers, telecontrol devices, amplifiers.
	Apparatus for converting non-electrical quantities into electrical (without generators and power supplies), analog and multi-charge converters, sensors for indications or measurements	Microphones, loudspeakers, pickups, ionizing radiation detectors, sensitive thermoelectric elements.
	Capacitors
	Micro assemblies, integrated circuits	Digital and analog integrated circuits, memory and delay devices, logic elements.
	Miscellaneous elements	Various types of lighting devices and heating elements.
	Fuse designation on the diagram, arresters, protective devices	Fuses, arresters, discrete current and voltage protection elements.
	Power supplies, generators, quartz oscillators	Rechargeable batteries, power supplies on an electrochemical and electrothermal basis.
	Devices for signals and indications	Indicators, light and sound signal izations
	Contactors, relays, starters	Voltage and current relays, time relays, electric thermal relays, magnetic starters, contactors.
	Chokes, inductors	Chokes in fluorescent lighting.
	Engines	DC and AC motors.
	Measuring instruments and equipment	Counters, clocks showing, registering and measuring instruments.
		Power circuit breakers, short-circuits, disconnectors.
	Resistors
Pulse counters
Frequency meters
Active energy meters
Reactive energy meters

Recording devices
Action time meters, hours
Voltmeters
Wattmeters
	Switches and disconnectors in power circuits	Circuit breakers
		Short-circuits
		Disconnectors
	Resistors	Thermistors
		Potentiometers
		Measuring shunts
		Varistors
	Switching devices in measurement, control and signaling circuits	Switches and switches
		Push-button switches
		Automatic switches
		Switches triggered by various factors: From level
		From pressure
		From position (travel)
		From rotation frequency
		From temperature
	Transformers, autotransformers	Current transformers
		Electromagnetic stabilizers
		Voltage transformers
	Communication devices, converters of non-electrical quantities into electrical	Modulators
		Demodulators
		Discriminators
		Frequency generators, inverters, frequency converters
	Semiconductor and vacuum devices	Diodes, Zener Diodes
		Electrovacuum devices
		Transistors
		Thyristors
	Antennas, microwave lines and elements	Taps
		Short-circuits

		Transformers, phase shifters
		Attenuators

	Contact connections	Sliding contacts, current collectors


		Dismountable connections
		High frequency connectors
	Mechanical devices with electromagnetic drive	Electromagnets
		Electromagnetic brakes
		Electromagnetic clutches
		Electromagnetic holders or plates
	Limiters, terminal devices, filters	Limiters
	Limiters, terminal devices, filters	Quartz filters

In addition, GOST 2.710-81 defines Special symbols to designate each item.

Conditional graphic symbols of electronic components in circuits

Graphic designation of radio components on the diagrams. Designation of radio components on the diagram and their name

Designation of radioelements. Photos and titles

Designation	Name	Photo	Description
	Earthing	Protective grounding - protects people from electric shock in electrical installations.
		A battery is a galvanic cell in which chemical energy is converted into electrical energy.
		A solar cell is used to convert solar energy into electrical energy.
		Voltmeter - a measuring device for determining the voltage or EMF in electrical circuits.
		Ammeter - a device for measuring current strength, the scale is calibrated in microamperes or in amperes.
		Switch - a switching device designed to turn on and off individual circuits or electrical equipment.
		The tact button is a switching mechanism that closes the electrical circuit while there is pressure on the pusher.
		Incandescent lamps general purpose, designed for indoor and outdoor lighting.
			Motor (motor) - a device that converts electrical energy into mechanical work (rotation).
		Piezodynamics (piezo emitters) are used in technology to notify an incident or event.
		A resistor is a passive element of electrical circuits with a certain value of electrical resistance.
		The variable resistor is designed for smooth change current, by changing its own resistance.
	Photoresistor		A photoresistor is a resistor whose electrical resistance changes under the influence of light rays (lighting).
	Thermistor		Thermistors or thermistors are semiconductor resistors with a negative temperature coefficient of resistance.
		Fuse - an electrical device designed to disconnect the protected circuit by destruction.
		The capacitor serves to store the charge and energy of the electric field. The capacitor charges and discharges quickly.
		The diode has different conductivity. The purpose of a diode is to conduct electric current in one direction.
		A light-emitting diode (LED) is a semiconductor device that creates optical radiation when electricity is transmitted.
		A photodiode is a receiver of optical radiation that converts light into electric charge due to the process in the p-n-junction.
		A thyristor is a semiconductor switch, i.e. a device whose purpose is to close and open a circuit.
		The purpose of the zener diode is to stabilize the voltage across the load, with a changing voltage in the external circuit.
		A transistor is a semiconductor device designed to amplify and control an electric current.
		A phototransistor is a semiconductor transistor that is sensitive to the luminous flux (illumination) that irradiates it.

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For Beginners About Radio Parts | Master Cog. Do it yourself!

In order to assemble the circuit, what kind of radio components are not needed: resistors (resistances), transistors, diodes, capacitors, etc. From the variety of radio components, one must be able to quickly distinguish what is needed in appearance, decipher the inscription on its body, and determine the pinout. All this will be discussed below.

This detail is practically found in every scheme of amateur radio designs. As a rule, the simplest capacitor is two metal plates (plates) and air between them as a dielectric. Instead of air, there can be porcelain, mica, or other non-conductive material. Direct current does not pass through the capacitor, but the alternating current passes through the capacitor. Due to this property, the capacitor is placed where it is necessary to separate the direct current from the alternating current.

For a capacitor, the main parameter is capacity.

The unit of capacity - microfarad (μF) is taken as a basis in radio amateur designs and in industrial equipment. But more often another unit is used - picofarad (pF), a millionth fraction of a microfarad (1 microfarad = 1,000 nf = 1,000,000 pf). In the diagrams, you will find both the one and the other unit. Moreover, capacities up to 9100 pF inclusive are indicated on the diagrams in picofarads or nanofarads (9n1), and above - in microfarads. If, for example, next to the condenser symbol is written "27", "510" or "6800", then the capacitance of the capacitor is respectively 27, 510, 6800 pF or n510 (0.51 nF = 510 pF or 6n8 = 6.8 nF = 6800pf). But the numbers 0.015, 0.25 or 1.0 indicate that the capacitance of the capacitor is the corresponding number of microfarads (0.015 microfarads = 15 nf = 15,000 pf).

Types of capacitors.

Capacitors are of constant and variable capacitance.

In variable capacitors, the capacitance changes when the axis protruding outward is rotated. In this case, one pad (movable) finds it not movable without touching it, as a result, the capacity increases. In addition to these two types, our designs use another type of capacitor - a trimmer. Usually it is installed in one or another device in order to more accurately select the required capacitance and not touch the capacitor anymore. In amateur designs, a trimmer capacitor is often used as a variable capacitor - it is cheaper and more affordable.

Capacitors differ in the material between the plates and in the design. There are air, mica, ceramic, etc. capacitors. This type of permanent capacitors is not polar. Another type of capacitor is electrolytic (polar). Such capacitors produce large capacity- from a tenth of a microfarad to several tens of microfarads. On the diagrams for them, not only the capacity is indicated, but also the maximum voltage at which they can be used. For example, the inscription 10.0 x 25 V means that a 10 μF capacitor must be taken at a voltage of 25 V.

For variable or trimming capacitors, the diagram indicates the extreme values of the capacitance, which are obtained if the capacitor axis is rotated from one extreme position to another or rotated round and round (like in trimming capacitors). For example, the inscription 10 - 240 indicates that in one extreme position of the axis the capacitance of the capacitor is 10 pF, and in the other - 240 pF. With a smooth rotation from one position to another, the capacitance of the capacitor will also smoothly change from 10 to 240 pF or vice versa - from 240 to 10 pF.

I must say that this part, like the capacitor, can be seen in many homemade products. It is a porcelain tube (or rod), on which the thinnest film of metal or soot (carbon) is sprayed on the outside. A nichrome thread is wound on top of low-resistance high-power resistors. A resistor has a resistance and is used to set the desired current in an electrical circuit. Consider the example of a reservoir: by changing the diameter of the pipe (load resistance), you can get one or another water flow rate (electric current of different strength). The thinner the film on the porcelain tube or rod, the greater the resistance to current.

Resistors are constant and variable.

Of the constants, the most commonly used resistors are MLT (metallized varnished heat-resistant), VS (moisture-resistant resistance), ULM (small-sized carbon varnished), from variables - SP (variable resistance) and SPO (variable volumetric resistance). The appearance of fixed resistors is shown in Fig. below.

Resistors are distinguished by resistance and power. Resistance, as you already know, is measured in ohms (ohms), kilohms (kohms) and megohms (megohms). Power is expressed in watts and this unit is denoted by the letters W. Resistors of different power differ in size. The higher the power of the resistor, the larger its size.

The resistance of the resistor is marked on the diagrams next to its symbol. If the resistance is less than 1 kOhm, the numbers indicate the number of ohms without a unit of measurement. With a resistance of 1 kΩ or more - up to 1 MΩ, indicate the number of kilo-ohms and put the letter "k" next to it. Resistance of 1 megohm and above is expressed by the number of megohms with the addition of the letter "M". For example, if on the diagram next to the resistor designation it is written 510, then the resistance of the resistor is 510 Ohm. The designations 3.6 k and 820 k correspond to resistances of 3.6 kΩ and 820 kΩ, respectively. The inscription on the diagram 1 M or 4.7 M means that resistances of 1 MΩ and 4.7 MΩ are used.

Unlike fixed resistors having two terminals, variable resistors have three such terminals. The diagram indicates the resistance between the extreme terminals of the variable resistor. The resistance between the middle terminal and the extreme ones changes when the outward protruding axis of the resistor is rotated. Moreover, when the axis is turned in one direction, the resistance between the middle terminal and one of the extreme increases, respectively, decreasing between the middle terminal and the other extreme. When the axis is turned back, the opposite occurs. This property of a variable resistor is used, for example, to control the volume of sound in amplifiers, receivers, televisions, etc.

Semiconductor devices.

They are made up of a whole group of parts: diodes, zener diodes, transistors. Each part uses a semiconductor material, or more simply a semiconductor. What it is? All existing substances can be roughly divided into three large groups. Some of them - copper, iron, aluminum and other metals - conduct electric current well - these are conductors. Wood, porcelain, plastic do not conduct electricity at all. They are non-conductors, insulators (dielectrics). Semiconductors occupy an intermediate position between conductors and dielectrics. Such materials conduct current only under certain conditions.

A diode (see figure below) has two leads: an anode and a cathode. If you connect a battery to them with poles: plus - to the anode, minus - to the cathode, a current will flow in the direction from the anode to the cathode. The resistance of the diode in this direction is small. If you try to change the poles of the batteries, that is, turn on the diode "vice versa", then the current will not flow through the diode. In this direction, the diode has a high resistance. If we pass an alternating current through the diode, then at the output we will receive only one half-wave - it will be, though pulsating, but direct current. If an alternating current is applied to four diodes connected by a bridge, then we will already get two positive half-waves.

These semiconductor devices also have two leads: the anode and the cathode. In the forward direction (from the anode to the cathode), the zener diode works like a diode, passing current unhindered. But in the opposite direction, at first, it does not pass current (like a diode), and with an increase in the voltage supplied to it, it suddenly "breaks through" and begins to pass current. The "breakdown" voltage is called the stabilization voltage. It will remain unchanged even with a significant increase in the input voltage. Due to this property, the zener diode is used in all cases when it is necessary to obtain a stable supply voltage of some device during fluctuations, for example, the mains voltage.

Of the semiconductor devices, the transistor (see figure below) is most often used in electronics. It has three outputs: base (b), emitter (e) and collector (k). A transistor is an amplifying device. It can be conditionally compared with such a device known to you as a horn. It is enough to say something in front of the narrow opening of the horn, directing the wide one towards a friend standing several tens of meters away, and the voice amplified by the horn will be clearly heard in the distance. If we take a narrow hole as the input of a horn-amplifier, and a wide one as an output, then we can say that the output signal is several times larger than the input. This is the indicator of the amplifying ability of the speaker, its amplification factor.

Now the variety of manufactured radio components is very rich, therefore, not all of their types are shown in the figures.

But back to the transistor. If a weak current is passed through the base-emitter section, it will be amplified by the transistor tens and even hundreds of times. The amplified current will flow through the collector-emitter section. If the transistor is ringing the base-emitter and base-collector with a multimeter, then it is similar to measuring two diodes. Depending on the highest current that can be passed through the collector, transistors are divided into low-power, medium and high-power. In addition, these semiconductor devices can be pnp or npp structures. This is how transistors differ with different alternation of layers of semiconductor materials (if there are two layers of material in a diode, there are three of them). The gain of a transistor is independent of its structure.

Literature: B. S. Ivanov, "ELECTRONIC DIY"

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RADIO ELEMENTS

This reference material provides the appearance, name and marking of the main foreign radio components - microcircuits different types, connectors, quartz resonators, inductors and so on. The information is really useful, since many are well acquainted with domestic parts, but not very much with imported ones, and after all, they are the ones that are installed in all modern schemes. Minimum knowledge of English is encouraged, since all the inscriptions are not in Russian. For convenience, the parts are grouped together. Do not pay attention to the first letter in the description, for example: f_Fuse_5_20Glass - means a 5x20 mm glass fuse.

As for the designation of all the indicated radioelements on electrical circuit diagrams - see reference information on this issue in another article.

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Graphic and letter designations of radio components on the diagrams

AM	amplitude modulation
AFC	automatic frequency control
APCHG	automatic local oscillator frequency control
APCHF	automatic frequency and phase control
AGC	automatic gain control
ARYA	automatic brightness control
AS	acoustic system
AFU	antenna feeder device
ADC	analog-to-digital converter
Frequency response	frequency response
BGIMS	large hybrid integrated circuit
NOS	wireless remote control
BIS	large integrated circuit
Biofeedback	signal processing unit
BP	power unit
BR	scanner
DBK	radio channel unit
BS	mixing block
BTK	blocking transformer personnel
BTS	blocking transformer lowercase
BOO	Control block
BC	color block
BCI	integrated chromaticity unit (using microcircuits)
VD	video detector
VIM	pulse time modulation
WU	video amplifier; input (output) device
HF	high frequency
G	heterodyne
GW	reproducing head
MHF	high frequency generator
MHF	hyperhigh frequency
GZ	start generator; recording head
GIR	heterodyne resonance indicator
GIS	hybrid integrated circuit
GKR	frame generator
GKCH	sweeping frequency generator
GMV	meter wave generator
GPA	smooth range generator
GO	envelope generator
HS	signal generator
GSR	line generator
gss	standard signal generator
yy	clock generator
GU	universal head
GUN	voltage controlled generator
D	detector
dv	long waves
dd	fractional detector
day	voltage divider
dm	power divider
dmv	decimeter waves
DU	remote control
DShPF	dynamic noise reduction filter
EASC	unified automated communication network
ESKD	unified system of design documentation
hr	sound frequency generator; master oscillator
ss	decelerating system; sound signal; pickup
ZCH	sound frequency
AND	integrator
iqm	pulse code modulation
IKU	quasi-peak meter
ims	integrated circuit
ini	linear distortion meter
inch	infra-low frequency
and he	reference voltage source
sp	power supply
ichh	frequency response meter
To	switch
KBV	traveling wave ratio
Kv	short waves
kvh	extremely high frequency
kzv	recording-playback channel
Kim	pulse code modulation
kk	frame reel deflector
km	coding matrix
knch	extremely low frequency
efficiency	efficiency
KS	coil deflection line
csv	standing wave ratio
ksvn	voltage standing wave ratio
CT scan	check Point
CF	focusing coil
TWT	traveling wave lamp
lz	delay line
fishing	backward wave lamp
lpd	avalanche diode
lppt	lamp-semiconductor TV
m	modulator
MA	magnetic antenna
MB	meter waves
mdp	metal-dielectric-semiconductor structure
MNP	metal-oxide-semiconductor structure
ms	chip
MU	microphone amplifier
nor	nonlinear distortion
LF	low frequency
ABOUT	common base(switching on the transistor according to the scheme with a common base)
sheepskin	very high frequency
oi	common source (turning on the transistor * according to the scheme with a common source)
OK	common collector (switching on the transistor according to the scheme with a common collector)
onch	very low frequency
oos	negative feedback
OS	deflection system
OU	operational amplifier
OE	common emitter (switching on the transistor according to the scheme with a common emitter)
Surfactant	surface acoustic waves
pds	dual-voice prefix
Remote control	remote control
pkn	code-voltage converter
pnc	voltage-to-code converter
pnch	converter voltage frequency
pos	positive feedback
PPU	jamming device
pch	intermediate frequency; frequency converter
ptk	tv channel switch
pts	full tv signal
Vocational school	industrial television set
PU	preliminary effort
PUV	playback preamplifier
BLS	recording preamplifier
PF	band pass filter; piezofilter
nx	transfer characteristic
pcts	full color television signal
Radar	line linearity regulator; radar station
RP	memory register
Rhcg	manual adjustment of the local oscillator frequency
RRS	row size adjuster
PC	shift register; mixing regulator
RF	notch or block filter
CEA	electronic equipment
SBDU	wireless remote control system
VLSI	ultra-large-scale integrated circuit
SV	medium waves
swp	touch program selection
Microwave	ultra high frequency
cr	signal generator
SDV	extra-long waves
SDU	dynamic light installation; remote control system
SC	channel selector
SLE	all-wave channel selector
sk-d	UHF channel selector
SK-M	meter wave channel selector
CM	mixer
ench	ultra-low frequency
Joint venture	mesh field signal
ss	sync signal
ssi	horizontal sync pulse
SU	selector amplifier
nt	average frequency
Tv	tropospheric radio waves; TV
tvs	output transformer line
tvz	audio output channel transformer
tvk	output transformer
Titus	TV test chart
TKE	temperature coefficient of capacitance
weaves	temperature coefficient of inductance
tkmmp	temperature coefficient of initial permeability
tcns	temperature coefficient of stabilization voltage
tks	temperature coefficient of resistance
mf	network transformer
mall	television center
ttsp	color stripe table
THAT	technical conditions
Have	amplifier
HC	playback amplifier
UVS	video amplifier
UVH	fetch-store device
UHF	high frequency signal amplifier
UHF	UHF
UZ	recording amplifier
UZCH	audio amplifier
VHF	ultrashort waves
ULPT	unified semiconductor tube TV
ULLCT	unified tube semiconductor color TV
ULT	unified tube TV
UMZCH	audio power amplifier
CNT	unified tv
ULF	low frequency amplifier
UNU	voltage controlled amplifier.
UTP	constant current amplifier; unified semiconductor TV
UCH	intermediate frequency amplifier
UPCHZ	intermediate frequency amplifier sound?
UPCHI	image intermediate frequency amplifier
URCH	radio frequency amplifier
US	interface device; comparison device
UHCH	microwave amplifier
OSS	horizontal sync amplifier
USU	universal touch device
Uu	control device (node)
UE	accelerating (control) electrode
UEIT	universal electronic test chart
PLL	phase locked loop
HPF	high pass filter
FD	phase detector; photodiode
FIM	phase-pulse modulation
FM	phase modulation
LPF	low pass filter
FPF	intermediate frequency filter
FPChZ	audio intermediate frequency filter
FPCI	image IF filter
FSI	lumped selectivity filter
FSS	concentrated selection filter
FT	phototransistor
PFC	phase-frequency response
DAC	digital-to-analog converter
Digital computer	digital computer
CMU	color music installation
CT	central television
BH	frequency detector
CHIM	pulse frequency modulation
chm	frequency modulation
shim	pulse width modulation
shs	noise signal
ev	electron volt (e V)
COMPUTER.	electronic computer
emf	electromotive force
eq	electronic switch
CRT	cathode-ray tube
AMY	electronic musical instrument
emos	electromechanical feedback
EMF	electromechanical filter
EPU	playing device
Electronic computer	electronic digital computer

www.radioelementy.ru

Radio parts are ... What is Radio parts?

Radio parts Designation of radio parts on the diagrams

Radio parts is a colloquial name for electronic components used for the manufacture of digital and analog electronics devices (devices).

The appearance of the name was influenced by the historical fact that at the beginning of the 20th century, the radio became the first ubiquitous, and at the same time technically difficult for a layman, electronic device. Initially, the term radio parts meant electronic components used for the production of radio receivers; then the everyday, with a certain amount of irony, the name was extended to the rest of the electronic components and devices that no longer have a direct connection with the radio.

Classification

Electronic components are divided, according to the mode of action in an electrical circuit, into active and passive.

Passive

Basic elements available in almost all electronic circuits radio electronic equipment (CEA) are:

Using electromagnetic induction

Based on electromagnets:

In addition, to create a circuit, all kinds of circuit connectors and disconnectors are used - keys; for overvoltage and short circuit protection - fuses; for human perception of the signal - light bulbs and speakers (dynamic loudspeaker head), for signal generation - a microphone and a video camera; to receive an analog signal transmitted over the air, the receiver needs an antenna, and to work outside the electric current - batteries.

Active

Vacuum devices

With the development of electronics, vacuum electronic devices have appeared:

Semiconductor devices

Later, semiconductor devices became widespread:

and more complex complexes based on them - integrated circuits

By installation method

Technologically, according to the method of installation, radio components can be divided into:

Links

dic.academic.ru

designations in the diagram. How to read the designations of radio components on the diagram?

Technologies June 4, 2016

In the article you will learn about what radio parts exist. The designations on the diagram according to GOST will be considered. You need to start with the most common - resistors and capacitors.

To assemble any structure, you need to know how radio parts look in reality, as well as how they are indicated on electrical diagrams. There are many radio components - transistors, capacitors, resistors, diodes, etc.

Capacitors are parts that are found in any design, without exception. Usually the simplest capacitors are two metal plates. And air acts as a dielectric component. I immediately recall the physics lessons at school, when the topic of capacitors was discussed. Two huge flat round glands were used as a model. They were brought closer to each other, then moved away. And measurements were taken in each position. It is worth noting that mica can be used instead of air, as well as any material that does not conduct an electric current. The designations of radio components on imported circuit diagrams differ from GOSTs adopted in our country.

Note that no direct current flows through conventional capacitors. On the other hand, alternating current passes through it without much difficulty. Given this property, the capacitor is installed only where it is necessary to separate the alternating component in direct current. Therefore, it is possible to make an equivalent circuit (according to Kirchhoff's theorem):

When operating on alternating current, the capacitor is replaced by a piece of conductor with zero resistance.
When working in a DC circuit, the capacitor is replaced (no, not by a capacitor!) With a resistance.

The main characteristic of a capacitor is its electrical capacity. The unit of capacity is Farad. It's very big. In practice, as a rule, capacitors are used, the capacitance of which is measured in microfarads, nanofarads, microfarads. In the diagrams, the capacitor is indicated in the form of two parallel lines, from which there are taps.

Variable capacitors

There is also a type of devices in which the capacity changes (in this case, due to the fact that there are movable plates). The capacity depends on the size of the plate (in the formula S is its area), as well as on the distance between the electrodes. In a variable capacitor with an air dielectric, for example, due to the presence of a moving part, it is possible to quickly change the area. Consequently, the capacity will also change. But the designation of radio components on foreign circuits is somewhat different. A resistor, for example, is depicted on them as a broken curve.

Fixed capacitors

These elements differ in design, as well as in the materials from which they are made. The most popular types of dielectrics can be distinguished:

Air.
Mica.
Ceramics.

But this applies exclusively to non-polar elements. There are also electrolytic capacitors (polar). It is these elements that have very large capacities - from tenths of microfarads to several thousand. In addition to capacitance, such elements have one more parameter - the maximum voltage value at which its use is allowed. These parameters are written on the diagrams and on the capacitor housings.

Capacitor designations on the diagrams

It is worth noting that in the case of using trimmer or variable capacitors, two values are indicated - the minimum and maximum capacitance. In fact, on the case, you can always find a certain range in which the capacity will change if you turn the axis of the device from one extreme position to another.

Let's say you have a variable capacitor with a capacity of 9-240 (default measurement in picofarads). This means that with a minimum overlap of the plates, the capacitance will be 9 pF. And at the maximum - 240 pF. It is worth considering in more detail the designation of radio components on the diagram and their name in order to be able to correctly read technical documentation.

Connecting capacitors

Three types can immediately be distinguished (there are just so many) compounds of elements:

Sequential - the total capacity of the entire chain is easy to calculate. In this case, it will be equal to the product of all capacities of the elements, divided by their sum.
Parallel - in this case, calculating the total capacity is even easier. It is necessary to add the capacities of all capacitors included in the chain.
Mixed - in this case, the scheme is divided into several parts. We can say that it is being simplified - one part contains only parallel-connected elements, the second - only in series.

And this is only general information about capacitors, in fact, you can talk a lot about them, cite entertaining experiments as an example.

Resistors: general information

These elements can also be found in any design - even in a radio receiver, even in a control circuit on a microcontroller. This is a porcelain tube, on which a thin film of metal (carbon - in particular, soot) is sprayed from the outside. However, you can even apply graphite - the effect will be similar. If the resistors have very low resistance and high power, then nichrome wire is used as a conductive layer.

The main characteristic of a resistor is resistance. Used in electrical circuits to set the required current value in certain circuits. In physics lessons, a comparison was made with a barrel filled with water: if you change the diameter of the pipe, you can adjust the speed of the jet. It should be noted that the resistance depends on the thickness of the conductive layer. The thinner this layer, the higher the resistance. In this case, the legend of radio components on the diagrams does not depend on the size of the element.

Fixed resistors

As for such elements, the most common types can be distinguished:

Metallized varnished heat-resistant - abbreviated as MLT.
Moisture resistant resistance - BC.
Small-sized carbon lacquered - ULM.

Resistors have two main parameters - power and resistance. The last parameter is measured in Ohms. But this unit of measurement is extremely small, so in practice you will often find elements in which resistance is measured in megohms and kilo-ohms. Power is measured exclusively in watts. Moreover, the dimensions of the element depend on the power. The larger it is, the larger the element. And now about the designation of radio components. On the diagrams of imported and domestic devices, all elements can be designated differently.

On domestic circuits, a resistor is a small rectangle with an aspect ratio of 1: 3, its parameters are written either from the side (if the element is located vertically) or from above (in the case of a horizontal arrangement). First, the Latin letter R is indicated, then the serial number of the resistor in the circuit.

Variable resistor (potentiometer)

Constant resistances have only two leads. But the variables are three. On the electrical circuits and on the cell body, the resistance between the two extreme contacts is indicated. But between the average and any of the extreme, the resistance will change depending on the position in which the axis of the resistor is. In this case, if you connect two ohmmeters, you can see how the reading of one will change in the smaller direction, and the second in the larger one. You need to understand how to read the diagrams of electronic devices. It will not be superfluous to know the designations of radio components.

The total resistance (between the extreme terminals) will remain unchanged. Variable resistors are used to adjust the gain (with their help you change the volume in radios, televisions). In addition, variable resistors are widely used in automobiles. These are fuel level sensors, electric motor speed controllers, lighting brightness.

Resistor connection

In this case, the picture is completely opposite to that of the capacitors:

Series connection - the resistance of all elements in the circuit is added.
Parallel connection - the product of resistances is divided by the sum.
Mixed - the whole scheme is split into smaller chains and calculated in stages.

On this you can close the overview of resistors and begin to describe the most interesting elements - semiconductor (designations of radio components on the diagrams, GOST for UGO, are discussed below).

Semiconductors

This is the largest part of all radioelements, since semiconductors include not only zener diodes, transistors, diodes, but also varicaps, variconds, thyristors, triacs, microcircuits, etc. Yes, microcircuits are one crystal on which there can be a great variety of radioelements - and capacitors, and resistances, and pn-junctions.

As you know, there are conductors (metals, for example), dielectrics (wood, plastic, fabrics). May be different designations radio components on the diagram (the triangle is most likely a diode or zener diode). But it is worth noting that a triangle without additional elements denotes a logical ground in microprocessor technology.

These materials either conduct current or not, regardless of what state of aggregation they are in. But there are also semiconductors, the properties of which change depending on specific conditions. These are materials such as silicon, germanium. By the way, glass can also be partly attributed to semiconductors - in its normal state it does not conduct current, but when heated, the picture is completely opposite.

Diodes and Zener Diodes

A semiconductor diode has only two electrodes: a cathode (negative) and an anode (positive). But what are the features of this radio component? You can see the designations in the diagram above. So, you connect the power supply with plus to the anode and minus to the cathode. In this case, an electric current will flow from one electrode to the other. It should be noted that the element in this case has extremely low resistance. Now you can conduct an experiment and connect the battery in reverse, then the resistance to the current increases several times, and it stops flowing. And if you send an alternating current through the diode, then you get a constant one at the output (albeit with small ripples). When using a bridge switching circuit, two half waves (positive) are obtained.

Zener diodes, like diodes, have two electrodes - a cathode and an anode. In direct connection, this element works in the same way as the diode discussed above. But if you run the current in the opposite direction, you can see a very interesting picture. Initially, the Zener diode does not pass current through itself. But when the voltage reaches a certain value, a breakdown occurs, and the element conducts current. This is the stabilization voltage. A very good property, thanks to which it is possible to achieve a stable voltage in the circuits, to completely get rid of oscillations, even the smallest ones. The designation of radio components on the diagrams is in the form of a triangle, and at its apex there is a line perpendicular to the height.

If diodes and zener diodes can sometimes not even be found in designs, then you will find transistors in any (except for a detector receiver). Transistors have three electrodes:

Base (abbreviated by the letter "B").
Collector (K).
Emitter (E).

Transistors can operate in several modes, but most often they are used in amplifier and key (like a switch). You can make a comparison with a megaphone - they shouted at the base, an amplified voice flew out of the collector. And hold on to the emitter with your hand - this is the case. The main characteristic of transistors is the gain (the ratio of the collector current to the base current). It is this parameter, along with many others, that is the main one for this radio component. The designations on the diagram for the transistor are a vertical bar and two lines approaching it at an angle. There are several of the most common types of transistors:

Polar.
Bipolar.
Field.

There are also transistor assemblies consisting of several amplifying elements. These are the most common radio components. The designations on the diagram were discussed in the article.

Content:

Novice radio amateurs often face such a problem as the designation of radio components on the diagrams and the correct reading of their markings. The main difficulty lies in the large number of names of elements, which are represented by transistors, resistors, capacitors, diodes and other parts. On how correctly the diagram is read, its practical implementation and the normal operation of the finished product largely depend.

Resistors

Resistors include radio components that have a strictly defined resistance to the electric current flowing through them. This function is designed to reduce the current in the circuit. For example, to make the lamp less bright, power is supplied to it through a resistor. The higher the resistance of the resistor, the less the lamp will glow. For fixed resistors, the resistance remains unchanged, and variable resistors can change their resistance from zero to the maximum possible value.

Each fixed resistor has two main parameters - power and resistance. The power value is indicated on the diagram not with alphabetic or numeric symbols, but with the help of special lines. The power itself is determined by the formula: P = U x I, that is, it is equal to the product of voltage and current. This parameter is important, since a particular resistor can only withstand a certain power value. If this value is exceeded, the element will simply burn out, since heat is released during the passage of current through the resistance. Therefore, in the figure, each line applied to the resistor corresponds to a certain power.

There are other ways to designate resistors on diagrams:

On the schematic diagrams, a serial number is indicated in accordance with the location (R1) and a resistance value of 12K. The letter "K" is a multiple prefix and stands for 1000. That is, 12K corresponds to 12000 ohms or 12 kilo-ohms. If the letter "M" is present in the marking, this indicates 12,000,000 ohms or 12 megohms.
In labeling with letters and numbers, the letter symbols E, K and M correspond to certain multiple prefixes. So the letter E = 1, K = 1000, M = 1,000,000. The decoding of the designations will look like this: 15E - 15 Ohm; K15 - 0.15 Ohm - 150 Ohm; 1K5 - 1.5 kOhm; 15K - 15 kOhm; M15 - 0.15M - 150 kOhm; 1M2 - 1.5 mΩ; 15M - 15mOhm.
In this case, only numerical designations are used. Each includes three numbers. The first two of them correspond to the value, and the third to the multiplier. Thus, the multipliers are 0, 1, 2, 3, and 4. They represent the number of zeros added to the base value. For example, 150 - 15 ohms; 151 - 150 Ohm; 152 - 1500 Ohm; 153 - 15000 Ohm; 154 - 120,000 ohms.

Fixed resistors

The name of fixed resistors is associated with their nominal resistance, which remains unchanged during the entire period of operation. They differ among themselves depending on the design and materials.

Wire elements are composed of metal wires. In some cases, high resistivity alloys can be used. The basis for winding the wire is a ceramic frame. These resistors have a high nominal accuracy, and the presence of a large self-inductance is considered a serious drawback. In the manufacture of film metal resistors, a metal with a high resistivity is sprayed onto a ceramic base. Due to their qualities, such elements are most widely used.

The design of carbon fixed resistors can be film or volumetric. In this case, the qualities of graphite are used as a material with high resistivity. There are other resistors, for example, integral resistors. They are used in specific integrated circuits where the use of other elements is not possible.

Variable resistors

Novice radio amateurs often confuse a variable resistor with a variable capacitor, since outwardly they are very similar to each other. However, they have completely different functions, and there are also significant differences in the display on the circuit diagrams.

The variable resistor design includes a slider that rotates over a resistive surface. Its main function is to adjust the parameters, which consists in changing the internal resistance to the desired value. This principle is the basis for the operation of the volume control in audio equipment and other similar devices. All adjustments are carried out by smoothly changing the voltage and current in electronic devices.

The main parameter of a variable resistor is resistance, which can vary within certain limits. In addition, it has an installed capacity that it must handle. All types of resistors have these qualities.

On domestic schematic diagrams, elements variable type are designated in the form of a rectangle, on which two main and one additional pins are marked, located vertically or diagonally passing through the icon.

On foreign circuits, the rectangle is replaced by a curved line with the designation of an additional output. Next to the designation is the English letter R with the serial number of one or another element. The value of the nominal resistance is affixed next to it.

Resistor connection

In electronics and electrical engineering, it is quite common to use resistor connections in various combinations and configurations. For greater clarity, you should consider a separate section of the circuit with serial, parallel and.

When connected in series, the end of one resistor is connected to the beginning of the next element. Thus, all resistors are connected one after the other, and a total current of the same value flows through them. There is only one current path between the start and end points. With an increase in the number of resistors connected in a common circuit, a corresponding increase in the total resistance occurs.

A parallel connection is considered when the initial ends of all resistors are combined at one point, and the final outputs - at another point. The current flows through each, separately taken resistor. As a result of the parallel connection, as the number of resistors connected increases, the number of paths for current flow also increases. The total resistance in such a section decreases in proportion to the number of connected resistors. It will always be less than the resistance of any resistor in parallel.

Most often, a mixed connection is used in electronics, which is a combination of parallel and serial options.

In the diagram shown, resistors R2 and R3 are connected in parallel. The series connection includes a resistor R1, a combination of R2 and R3, and a resistor R4. In order to calculate the resistance of such a connection, the entire circuit is divided into several simple sections. After that, the resistance values are summed up and the overall result is obtained.

Semiconductors

A standard semiconductor diode consists of two leads and one rectifying electrical junction. All elements of the system are combined in a common body made of ceramics, glass, metal or plastic. One part of the crystal is called the emitter, due to the high concentration of impurities, and the other part, with a low concentration, is called the base. The marking of semiconductors on the circuits reflects their design features and technical characteristics.

For the manufacture of semiconductors, germanium or silicon is used. In the first case, it is possible to achieve a higher transmission coefficient. Elements made of germanium are distinguished by high conductivity, for which even a low voltage is sufficient.

Depending on the design, semiconductors can be point or planar, and according to technological characteristics, they can be rectifier, pulse or universal.

Capacitors

A capacitor is a system that includes two or more electrodes made in the form of plates - plates. They are separated by a dielectric, which is much thinner than the capacitor plates. The entire device has mutual capacitance and the ability to store electrical charge. In the simplest diagram, a capacitor is represented as two parallel metal plates separated by some kind of dielectric material.

On the schematic diagram, next to the image of the capacitor, its nominal capacitance in microfarads (μF) or picofarads (pF) is indicated. When designating electrolytic and high-voltage capacitors, after the nominal capacity, the value of the maximum operating voltage is indicated, measured in volts (V) or kilovolts (kV).

Variable capacitors

To indicate capacitors with variable capacitance, two parallel lines are used, which are crossed by an oblique arrow. Moving plates connected at a certain point in the circuit are depicted as a short arc. The designation of the minimum and maximum capacity... The capacitor bank, consisting of several sections, is connected by a dashed line crossing the regulation signs (arrows).

The trimmer capacitor designation includes an oblique line with a dash at the end instead of an arrow. The rotor is displayed as a short arc. Other elements - thermal capacitors are designated by the letters CK. In its graphic image, a temperature symbol is affixed to the nonlinear adjustment sign.

Fixed capacitors

The graphic designation of capacitors with constant capacitance is widely used. They are depicted as two parallel lines and leads from the middle of each of them. The letter C is placed next to the icon, after it is the serial number of the element and, with a small interval, the numerical designation of the nominal capacity.

When using a capacitor c in the circuit, an asterisk is applied instead of its serial number. The rated voltage is indicated for high voltage circuits only. This applies to all capacitors except electrolytic. The digital voltage symbol is affixed after the capacitance designation.

The connection of many electrolytic capacitors requires polarity. In the diagrams, the “+” sign or a narrow rectangle is used to denote a positive cover. In the absence of polarity, both plates are marked with narrow rectangles.

Diodes and Zener Diodes

Diodes are among the simplest semiconductor devices operating on the basis of an electron-hole junction known as a pn junction. The property of one-sided conductivity is clearly conveyed in graphic symbols. A standard diode is depicted as a triangle representing the anode. The apex of the triangle indicates the direction of conduction and abuts against the cross line indicating the cathode. The entire image is intersected in the center by an electrical circuit line.

The letter designation VD is used for. It displays not only individual elements, but entire groups, for example. The type of this or that diode is indicated next to its reference designation.

The base symbol is also used to denote zener diodes, which are semiconductor diodes with special properties. The cathode has a short stroke directed towards the triangle, symbolizing the anode. This stroke is located invariably, regardless of the position of the zener diode icon on the circuit diagram.

Transistors

Most electronic components have only two leads. However, elements such as transistors are equipped with three terminals. Their designs differ in a variety of types, shapes and sizes. General principles their work is the same, and small differences are associated with technical characteristics specific item.

Transistors are used primarily as electronic switches for turning on and off various devices... The main convenience of such devices is the ability to switch high voltage using a low voltage source.

At its core, each transistor is a semiconductor device, with the help of which electrical oscillations are generated, amplified and converted. The most widespread are bipolar transistors with the same electrical conductivity of the emitter and collector.

In the diagrams, they are indicated by the letter code VT. The graphic image is a short line with a line extending from the middle. This symbol indicates the base. Two oblique lines at an angle of 60 0 are drawn to its edges, representing the emitter and the collector.

Base conductivity depends on the direction of the emitter arrow. If it is directed towards the base, then the conductivity of the emitter is p, and that of the base is n. When the arrow is directed in the opposite direction, the emitter and base change the conductivity to the opposite value. Knowing the electrical conductivity is necessary to properly connect the transistor to the power source.

In order for the designation on the diagrams of the radio components of the transistor to be more visual, it is placed in a circle, meaning the case. In some cases, a metal case is connected to one of the element terminals. Such a place on the diagram is displayed as a dot, affixed where the pin intersects with the frame symbol. If there is a separate pin on the case, then the line denoting the pin can be connected to a circle without a dot. Next to the designation of the transistor, its type is indicated, which can significantly increase the information content of the circuit.

Letter designation on the diagrams of radio components

Basic designation	Item name	Additional designation	Device type
	Device		Current regulator
			Relay box
			Device
	Converters		Speaker

			Thermal sensor
			Photocell
			Microphone
			Pickup
	Capacitors		Power capacitor battery
			Charging capacitor bank
	Integrated circuits, microassemblies		Analog IC
			IC digital, logic element
	The elements are different		Heat electric heater
			Lighting lamp
	Arresters, fuses, protective devices		Discrete instantaneous current protection element
			The same for inertial current
			Fuse fuse
			Arrester
	Generators, power supplies		Battery accumulator
			Synchronous compensator
			Generator exciter
	Indicating and signaling devices		Sound alarm device
			Indicator
			Light signaling device
			Signal board
			Signal lamp with green lens
			Signal lamp with red lens
			Signal lamp with white lens
			Ionic and semiconductor indicators
	Relays, contactors, starters		Relay current
			Indicator relay
			Electric thermal relay
			Contactor, magnetic starter
			Time relay
			Voltage relay
			Close command relay
			Trip command relay
			Relay intermediate
	Inductors, chokes		Fluorescent light choke


			Action time meter, clock
			Voltmeter
			Wattmeter
	Power switches and disconnectors		Automatic switch
	Resistors		Thermistor
			Potentiometer
			Measuring shunt
			Varistor

	Switching device in control, signaling and measuring circuits		Switch or switch
			Push-button switch
			Automatic switch
	Autotransformers		Current transformer
			Voltage transformers
	Converters		Modulator
			Demodulator
			Power Supply
			Frequency converter
	Electrovacuum and semiconductor devices		Diode, Zener diode
			Electrovacuum device
			Transistor
			Thyristor
	Pin connectors		Current collector


			High frequency connector
	Mechanical devices with electromagnetic drive		Electromagnet
			Electromagnetic lock

All radio devices are literally crammed with a mass of radio components. To understand the contents of the boards, you need to understand the types and purpose of the parts. The radio elements are arranged in a specific order. Connected by tracks on the board, they represent an electronic device that provides the operation of radio equipment for various purposes. There is an international designation of radio components on the diagram and their name.

Classification of radioelements

Systematization of electronic components is needed so that a radio technician, an electronic engineer can freely navigate in the selection of radio components for creating and repairing boards for radio devices. The classification of names and types of radio components is carried out in three directions:

installation method;
appointment.

CVC

The abbreviation of three letters VAC stands for current-voltage characteristic. The I - V characteristic reflects the dependence of the current on the voltage flowing in any radio component. The characteristics look in the form of graphs, where the values of the current strength are plotted along the ordinate, the voltage value is noted along the abscissa. According to the shape of the graph, radio components are divided into passive and active elements.