bad contact with the core), it will be immediately visible: the temperature will be too high for this processor model, which after a while will lead to its failure. It should be remembered that in the event AMD processors it is necessary to focus on the real frequency, and not on the rating. In different BlOS "ax, the bus frequency can be set both in the form of the nominal (real) frequency, and in the form of the effective one. Clock frequency processor should be obtained by multiplying the multiplier by the system bus frequency. The purchased processor may turn out to be defective (this happens even in large reputable stores) or already burned out (when buying from hand), and then the postcoder (which is built into modern motherboards) will light "00" all the time when turned on.

We insert memory.

There are five main types of random access memory currently on sale: DDR, DDR II, DDR III, Registered DDR, Dual Channel DDR. The choice of memory type and how to install it also depends on the platform. Socket478 supports dual-channel memory operation. As a rule, CPUs with FSB 800 MHz require RAM to work in Dual DDR mode (LGA775). The NVIDIA nForce2 chipset, which normally supports Dual DDR, is capable of organizing such a bundle at a high frequency (dual-channel memory - processor). Usually, to enable the dual mode, the memory modules are installed through the slot (for example, in the first and third), and most manufacturers motherboards paired slots are specially painted in the same color, and for more accurate information, you should refer to the user manual. In general (subject to support motherboard) Dual DDR can be organized on platforms Socket478, SocketA, Socket939 - for the rest, special memory is required, or RAM operation only in normal mode. So, for example, the AMD Athlon 64 memory controller (connecting to Socket754) does not have the ability to work in dual mode (since the processor physically lacks the number of legs), while Socket940 requires a special Registered DDR (from a technical point of view into Russian the language is correctly translated as "buffered", not "register" memory). Due to the external similarity of various modules, users sometimes insert inappropriate memory into the slot. It also happens that users insert the bar upside down. Such errors can lead to burnout or damage to the module and board. To avoid this, before purchasing, you need to read in the User "s Guide of the motherboard, which memory is suitable for this model of the board and how to install it correctly.

Configuring memory in BIOS.

This is an important operation, since the system performance directly depends on the memory settings (in general, you can gain about 5% compared to the underestimated "default" values). Unfortunately, there is no single name for all the options we need, and each motherboard manufacturer chooses which menu they are in, you can only cite some of the most common titles. When buying a memory module, a certain sequence of numbers is usually written (otherwise it is called a formula), which indicate the time intervals in the operation of the chips. The memory formula consists of three digits, for example, 5-2-2, and denotes, respectively, RAS-RAS_to_CAS-CAS, the access time to address cells. These values should be set in front of the corresponding parameter names (for example, "DRAM RAS # Latency", "Tras", "Row Address Strobe" is often used to denote the first digit). Also due to wrong setting bus frequency or timing parameters, there may be problems when the computer is turned on (initial initialization occurs, after which it fails in the form of a reboot, shutdown or freeze). In such a situation, it is necessary to increase one or all of the timings or lower the bus frequency. In any case, you need to strive for their optimal value - the shorter the access time, the faster the data is processed.

Video card.

Video cards and the features of their connection are also quite diverse, so here you should be no less careful so as not to make mistakes when choosing and installing. There are two slots for connecting graphics cards - these are AGP and PCI Express 16x. The first is older, works at a lower speed and supports only one device of this type (except for specification number 3.0, where there may be two). The AGP 3.0 standard describes four speeds (from 1x - 266 Mb / s to 8x - 2 Gb / s). There is its extension - AGP Pro (increased slot length for additional power supply, but in reality there are very few cards for this connector). AGP cards are AGP Pro compatible. The main difference between the second bus (PCI Express 16x) is that it is sequential and supports data transfer rates up to 8 Gb / s. Also increased electric power, which can be supplied via this bus, so that new video cards may well do without additional power supply. When installing a modern graphics accelerator, do not forget about the required additional power supply and connect the connector (Molex) from the power supply unit. Symptoms signaling its absence are expressed in the form of a message on the screen before booting the computer, beeps from the PC Speaker "a", and the absence of an image (the method of notifying the user differs from manufacturer to manufacturer).

AGP settings in BIOS.

In BlOS "e, it is desirable to change some parameters concerning the AGP slot, which, however, do not have a critical effect on performance. If a PCI adapter and an AGP adapter are installed in the system at the same time, in the" Init Display First "option, you can choose which of them will be initialized first (system messages will be displayed on it before the OS is loaded). "AGP Aperture Size" (AGP aperture size) should be set to 64-128 MB, although for new models this does not affect anything, since this function remains unused. According to some reports, a lower value may cause problems in modern games. "AGP Speed" - with support high speed data transfer value 8x will be optimal so as not to underestimate the performance of the graphics subsystem.

We connect the power supply.

The ATX connector (wide 20-pin connector) is designed to supply voltage to the motherboard, but many systems are not limited to this. For SocketA, most often, nothing else is needed, and the computer will turn on without problems, but Socket478 may refuse to work without connecting the ATX12V pad (four pins located in a square). Processors with 754/939/940/1155/1156 legs will work only with a 12-volt power connector, since they consume increased power. LGA775 is a different story altogether, and here two ways are already possible:

The first is when the motherboard has as many as three pads, namely: standard ATX, ATX12V, Molex, and all of them need to be connected to the power supply.

The second case is an ATX connector extended by 4 pins, however, such power supplies are still not widely used, but you can already find adapters on sale (in both directions) that allow you to use a standard connector (then you do not need to connect Molex). Sometimes the power supply unit may have an additional yellow wire with a FAN connector (three-pin) designed to indicate the fan speed in the power supply unit itself, and then, by connecting it to the corresponding motherboard connector, this indicator can be monitored. Often, power supplies intended for delivery in different countries, have a mains voltage switch (on the rear panel), which is also found in the wrong 110-volt position, and if you miss this moment and leave everything as it is, you can pay with a blown fuse. If there is no jumper, then you should pay attention to the stickers on the case, where the operating modes of the unit are indicated (to make sure that the device is suitable). It is worth recalling that when reconnecting any devices, it is imperative to disconnect the power supply from the network, since even in the off state (sleep mode) it supplies standby voltage to the motherboard.

First turn on

After connecting the CPU, cooler, memory, video adapter and power supply outside the system unit, to assess the performance of the hardware, it is necessary to carry out a control start of the system. Place the motherboard on an antistatic bag. If everything is in order, a short single beep should be heard from the speaker, and an invitation will appear on the screen to press any key to enter the BIOS, where you need to make the above settings for the CPU, memory and AGP.

Assembly into the case.

After making sure that the basic nodes of the computer are functioning correctly, let's proceed to installing everything in the system unit. This should be done without removing the memory, processor and cooler from the motherboard, since in system unit it will be inconvenient to connect them. The main thing in the process is not to use force, and not to tighten the fastening screws too much in order to avoid deformation of the board.

Winchesters.

HDD connection may differ depending on the equipment available - at the moment, the most common IDE and SATA options at home.

IDE. To determine where these devices are connected, it is worth looking at the motherboard manual, since many modern motherboards have a built-in RAID controller, which adds a few more IDE connectors. When connecting two devices to one IDE channel, be sure to define one of them as Master, and the other as Slave. This is done using jumpers on the device body. Connect hard drives with an 80-wire cable, for CD / DVD a 40-wire cable is enough. You can identify the first leg on the board and on the device by marking, and on the loop, the first wire is indicated in red or blue. On connector

4. Systems of open evaporation

There are also combined cooling systems combining elements of various types of systems:

1.waterchiller;

2. systems using Peltier elements.

2.1 Types of cooling systems

2.1.1 Air cooling systems

The principle of operation consists in the direct transfer of heat from the heating component to the radiator due to the thermal conductivity of the material or using heat pipes (or their varieties, such as a thermosyphon and an evaporation chamber). The radiator radiates heat into the surrounding space by thermal radiation and transfers heat by heat conduction to the surrounding air, which causes natural convection of the surrounding air. To increase the heat radiated by the radiator, blackening of the radiator surface is used.

The surfaces of the heating component and the radiator after grinding have a roughness of about 10 microns, and after polishing - about 5 microns. These roughnesses prevent the surfaces from touching tightly, resulting in a thin air gap with very low thermal conductivity. To increase thermal conductivity, the gap is filled heat-conducting pastes.

The most common type of cooling systems at the present time. Differs in high versatility - heatsinks are installed on most computer components with high heat dissipation. Cooling efficiency depends on the effective heat dissipation area of the radiator, temperature and air flow rate through it. Components with relatively low heat dissipation (chipsets, power supply transistors, modules random access memory), as a rule, the simplest passive radiators are installed. On some computer components, in particular hard drives, it is difficult to install the radiator, so they are cooled by blowing a fan. To the central and GPUs predominantly active radiators (coolers) are installed. Passive air cooling of the central and graphic processors requires the use of special radiators with high efficiency of heat dissipation at a low speed of the passing air flow and is used to build a quiet personal computer.

2.1.2 Liquid cooling systems

The principle of operation is the transfer of heat from the heating component to the radiator using the working fluid that circulates in the system. Distilled water is most often used as a working fluid, often with additives that have a bactericidal and / or antigalvanic effect; sometimes oil, antifreeze, liquid metal, or other special liquids.

The liquid cooling system consists of:

Pumps - pumps for circulation of working fluid

Heat sink (water block, water block, cooling head) - a device that takes heat from the cooled element and transfers it to the working fluid

Radiator for dissipating the heat of the working fluid. Can be active or passive

A reservoir with a working fluid, which serves to compensate for the thermal expansion of the fluid, increase the thermal inertia of the system and improve the convenience of filling and draining the working fluid

Hoses or pipes

(Optional) Fluid flow sensor

The liquid must have a high thermal conductivity to minimize the temperature difference between the tube wall and the evaporation surface, as well as a high specific heat in order to provide greater cooling efficiency at a lower liquid circulation rate in the circuit.

2.1.3 Freon installations

Refrigeration unit, the evaporator of which is mounted directly on the component to be cooled. Such systems allow obtaining negative temperatures on the cooled component during continuous operation, which is necessary for extreme overclocking of processors.

Disadvantages:

The need for thermal insulation of the cold part of the system and the fight against condensation

Difficulty cooling multiple components

Increased power consumption

Complexity and high cost

2.1.4 Waterchillers

Systems combining liquid cooling systems and freon units. In such systems, the antifreeze circulating in the liquid cooling system is cooled using a freon unit in the heat exchanger. These systems allow the use of negative temperatures attainable with freon units for cooling several components (in conventional freon units, cooling of several components is difficult). The disadvantages of such systems include their great complexity and cost, as well as the need for thermal insulation of the entire liquid cooling system.

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Computer cooling system- a set of means for removing heat from computer components that heat up during operation.

The heat can ultimately be recovered:

To atmosphere (radiator cooling systems):
# Passive cooling (heat removal from the radiator is carried out by natural convection)
# Active cooling (heat removal from the radiator is carried out by blowing it with fans)
Together with the coolant (flow-through water cooling systems)
Due to the phase transition of the coolant (open evaporation system)

According to the method of heat removal from heating elements, cooling systems are divided into:

There are also combined cooling systems that combine elements of various types of systems:

Waterchiller
Systems using Peltier elements

1. Air cooling systems

The principle of operation is the direct transfer of heat from the heated component to the radiator due to the thermal conductivity of the material or using heat pipes (or varieties such as a thermosyphon and an evaporation chamber).

The most common type of cooling systems at the present time. Differs in high versatility - heatsinks are installed on most computer components with high heat dissipation. Cooling efficiency depends on the effective heat dissipation area of the radiator, the temperature and the speed of the air flow through it. Components with relatively low heat dissipation (chipset and power supply transistors, RAM modules) are usually equipped with simple passive heatsinks. Some computer components, such as hard drives, are difficult to install with a heatsink, so they are cooled by a fan. Mainly active radiators (cooler and) are installed on the central and graphic processors. Passive air cooling of the central and graphic processors requires the use of special radiators with high efficiency of heat dissipation at low air flow rates and is used to build silent PCs.

The liquid cooling system consists of:

Pumps - pumps for circulation of working fluid
Heat receiver (water block and water block, cooling head) - a device that takes heat from the cooled element and its transfer fluid
Radiators for dissipating the heat of the working fluid. Can be active or passive
A reservoir with a working fluid, which serves to compensate for the thermal expansion of the fluid, increase thermal inertia and improve the convenience of filling and draining the working fluid
Hoses or pipes
(Optional) Fluid flow sensor

2. Freon installations

(Jargon. freon)

Disadvantages:

The need for thermal insulation of the cold part of the system and the fight against condensation
Difficulty cooling multiple components
Increased power consumption
Complexity and high cost

3. Waterchillers

The systems combine liquid cooling systems and freon units. In such systems, the antifreeze circulating in the liquid cooling system is cooled using a freon unit in a special heat exchanger. These systems allow the use of negative temperatures, which are achievable with freon units for cooling several components (in conventional freon units, cooling of several components is difficult). The disadvantages of such systems include their great complexity and cost, as well as the need for thermal insulation of the entire liquid cooling system.

4. Cascade cooling systems

Two or more freon installations connected in series. To obtain lower temperatures, it is necessary to use freon with a lower boiling point. In a single-stage refrigeration machine, in this case, it is necessary to increase the operating pressure by using more powerful compressors. An alternative way is to cool the radiator of the installation of another freon (that is, their sequential inclusion), due to which the operating pressure in the system is reduced and it becomes possible to use conventional compressors. Cascade systems allow to obtain much lower temperatures than single-stage systems and, unlike open evaporation systems, can operate continuously. However, they are also the most difficult to manufacture and set up.

5. Systems with Peltier elements

The Peltier element for cooling computer components is never used on its own due to the need to cool its hot surface. Typically, the Peltier element is mounted on the component to be cooled, and the other surface is cooled using another cooling system (usually air or liquid). Since the component can be cooled to temperatures below the ambient temperature, precautions must be taken to control condensation. Compared to freon units, Peltier elements are more compact and do not generate noise and vibration, but are noticeably less effective.

6. See also

Overclocking (overclocking computers)

Notes (edit)

Literature

Scott Mueller Upgrading and Repairing PCs = Upgrading and Repairing PCs. - 17 publishing houses.

Computer cooling system- a set of means for removing heat from computer components that heat up during operation.

The heat can ultimately be recovered:

To atmosphere (radiator cooling systems):
1. Passive cooling (heat removal from the radiator is carried out by heat radiation and natural convection)
2. Active cooling (heat removal from the radiator is carried out by radiation (radiation) heat and forced convection (blowing by fans))
Together with the coolant (liquid cooling systems)
Due to the phase transition of the coolant (open evaporation system)

According to the method of heat removal from the heating elements, the cooling systems are divided into:

Air (aerogenic) cooling systems
Liquid cooling systems
Freon installation
Open Evaporation Systems

There are also combined cooling systems that combine elements of various types of systems:

Waterchiller
Systems using Peltier elements

Air cooling systems

Passive

If heat flux density(heat flux passing through a unit of surface) does not exceed 0.5 mW / cm², the superheat of the surface of the device relative to the environment will not exceed 0.5 ° C (usually up to a maximum of 50-60 ° C), such equipment is considered not heat-loaded and does not require special cooling circuits. Components exceeding this parameter, but with relatively low heat dissipation (chipsets, transistors, RAM modules), as a rule, are equipped with only passive heatsinks. Also, if the power of the chip is not very high or if the processing capacity of tasks is limited, only a heatsink is enough, without a fan.

Original text(English)

Intel's reference boundary conditions for ICH10 in an ATX system are 60 ° C inlet ambient temperature and 0.25 m / s of airflow. See Figure 5 below for more details on the ATX boundary conditions.
In the ATX boundary conditions listed above, the ICH10 will not require a heatsink when power dissipation is at or below 4.45 W. This value is referred to as the Package Thermal Capability, or PTC. Note that the power level at which a heatsink is required will also change depending on system local operating ambient conditions and system configuration.
Intel® I / O Controller Hub 10 (ICH10) Family Thermal and Mechanical Design Guidelines. June 2008. Document Number: 319975-001

The surfaces of the heating component and the radiator after grinding have a roughness of about 10 microns, and after polishing - about 5 microns. These roughnesses prevent the surfaces from touching tightly, resulting in a thin air gap with very low thermal conductivity. To increase the thermal conductivity, the gap is filled with heat-conducting pastes.

Passive air cooling of the central and graphic processors requires the use of special (and rather large) radiators with high efficiency of heat removal at a low speed of passing air flow and is used to build a silent personal computer.

Active

To increase the passing air flow, fans are additionally used (the combination of it and the radiator is called a cooler). Mostly coolers are installed on the central and graphic processors.

Also, on some computer components, in particular, hard drives, it is difficult to install a radiator, so they are forcedly cooled by blowing a fan.

Liquid cooling systems

The liquid cooling system consists of:

Pumps - a pump for circulating the working fluid;
Heat collector (water block, water block, cooling head) - a device that takes heat from the cooled element and transfers it to the working fluid;
Radiator for dissipating the heat of the working fluid. Can be active or passive;
A reservoir with a working fluid, which serves to compensate for the thermal expansion of the fluid, increase the thermal inertia of the system and improve the convenience of filling and draining the working fluid;
Hoses or pipes;
(optional) Liquid flow sensor.

Freon installations

Disadvantages:

The need for thermal insulation of the cold part of the system and the fight against condensation (this is a common problem in cooling systems operating at temperatures below ambient temperature);
Difficulty cooling multiple components
Increased power consumption;
Complexity and high cost.

Waterchillers

Systems combining liquid cooling systems and freon units. In such systems, the antifreeze circulating in the liquid cooling system is cooled using a freon unit in a special heat exchanger. These systems allow the use of negative temperatures attainable with freon units for cooling several components (in conventional freon units, cooling of several components is difficult). The disadvantages of such systems include their great complexity and cost, as well as the need for thermal insulation of the entire liquid cooling system.

Open Evaporation Systems

Installations in which dry ice, liquid nitrogen or helium is used as a refrigerant (working fluid), evaporating in a special open container (glass) installed directly on the cooled element. They are mainly used by computer enthusiasts for extreme overclocking of hardware ("overclocking"). They allow obtaining the lowest temperatures, but have a limited operating time (they require constant refilling of the glass with refrigerant).

Cascade cooling systems

Two or more freon installations connected in series. To obtain lower temperatures, it is required to use freon with a lower boiling point. In a single-stage refrigeration machine, in this case, it is required to increase the operating pressure by using more powerful compressors. An alternative way is to cool the radiator of the installation with another freon (that is, their sequential switching on), due to which the operating pressure in the system is reduced and it becomes possible to use conventional compressors. Cascade systems allow much lower temperatures than single-cascade systems and, unlike open evaporation systems, can operate continuously. However, they are also the most difficult to manufacture and set up.

Systems with Peltier elements

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Notes (edit)

Literature

Scott Mueller. Upgrading and Repairing PCs = Upgrading and Repairing PCs. - 17th ed. - M .: "Williams", 2007. - S. 1299-1328 ... - ISBN 0-7897-3404-4.

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An excerpt characterizing the computer cooling system

Pierre, without stopping home, took a cab and went to the commander-in-chief.
Count Rostopchin only this morning arrived in the city from his country cottage in Sokolniki. The hallway and reception room in the count's house were full of officials who appeared at his request or for orders. Vasilchikov and Platov had already seen the count and explained to him that it was impossible to defend Moscow and that it would be surrendered. Although this news was concealed from the inhabitants, the officials and heads of various directorates knew that Moscow would be in the hands of the enemy, just as Count Rostopchin knew; and all of them, in order to relinquish responsibility, came to the commander-in-chief with questions about what to do with the units entrusted to them.
While Pierre was entering the waiting room, a courier from the army left the count.
The courier waved his hand hopelessly at the questions that were asked of him and walked through the hall.
While waiting in the waiting room, Pierre looked with tired eyes around the various, old and young, military and civilian, important and unimportant officials who were in the room. Everyone seemed unhappy and restless. Pierre approached a group of officials, one of which was his acquaintance. Having greeted Pierre, they continued their conversation.
- How to send and return again, there will be no trouble; and in such a position one cannot be held accountable for anything.
“Why, he’s writing,” said another, pointing to the printed paper in his hand.
- This is another matter. For the people it is necessary, - said the first.
- What is it? Pierre asked.
- And here's a new poster.
Pierre took it in his hands and began to read:
“The Most Serene Prince, in order to quickly unite with the troops that are marching towards him, crossed Mozhaisk and stood in a strong place where the enemy would not suddenly attack him. Forty-eight cannons with shells were sent to him from here, and His Serene Highness says that he will defend Moscow to the last drop of blood and is ready to fight even in the streets. You, brothers, do not look at the fact that the offices of office have been closed: things need to be cleaned up, and we will deal with the villain with our own court! When it comes to what, I need good fellows, both urban and rural. I’ll call the call in two days, but now I don’t need to, I’m silent. Good with an ax, not bad with a spear, and best of all is the pitchfork of a triad: a Frenchman is not heavier than a sheaf of rye. Tomorrow, after lunch, I will raise Iverskaya to the Ekaterininskaya hospital, to the wounded. We will consecrate the water there: they will sooner recover; and now I am healthy: my eye hurt, and now I look both ways. "
- And the military people told me, - said Pierre, - that in the city it is impossible to fight in any way and that the position ...
- Well, yes, that's what we're talking about, - said the first official.
- And what does it mean: my eye hurt, and now I look at both? - said Pierre.
“The count had barley,” said the adjutant, smiling, “and he was very worried when I told him that people came to ask what was the matter with him. And what, count, - said the adjutant suddenly, turning to Pierre with a smile, - have we heard that you have family troubles? As if a countess, your wife ...
“I haven't heard anything,” Pierre said indifferently. - What did you hear?
- No, you know, they often make up. I say I heard.
- What did you hear?
“Yes, they say,” said the adjutant again with the same smile, “that the Countess, your wife, is going abroad. Probably nonsense ...
“Maybe,” said Pierre, absentmindedly looking around him. - And who is this? He asked, pointing to a short old man in a clean blue chuyka, with a big beard as white as snow, the same eyebrows and a ruddy face.
- It? This is the only merchant, that is, he is an innkeeper, Vereshchagin. Have you heard maybe this story about the proclamation?
- Oh, so this is Vereshchagin! - said Pierre, peering into the firm and calm face of the old merchant and looking for an expression of treason in it.
- It's not him. This is the father of the one who wrote the proclamation, said the adjutant. - That young man is sitting in a pit, and it seems to him that it will be bad.
One old man, in a star, and the other - a German official, with a cross around his neck, approached the conversation.
“You see,” said the adjutant, “this is a complicated story. Then, about two months ago, this proclamation appeared. The count was told. He ordered an investigation. Here he was looking for Gavrilo Ivanovich, this proclamation was in exactly sixty-three hands. He will come to one: who do you have from? - From that then. He goes to the one: who are you from? and so on. We got to Vereshchagin ... a half-educated merchant, you know, a merchant, my dear, ”said the adjutant, smiling. - They ask him: who do you get it from? And the main thing is that we know who he receives from. He has no one else to have from, as from the director's mail. But evidently there was a strike between them. He says: from no one, I composed it myself. And they threatened and asked, stood on that: he wrote it himself. And so it was reported to the count. The Count ordered to summon him. "Who did you get the proclamation from?" - "I composed it myself." Well, you know the Count! The adjutant said with a proud and cheerful smile. - He flared up terribly, and think: such impudence, lies and stubbornness! ..
- A! The count needed him to point to Klyucharyov, I understand! - said Pierre.
“It’s not necessary at all,” the adjutant said in dismay. - Klyucharyov had sins even without that, for which he was exiled. But the fact is that the count was very indignant. “How could you compose? - says the count. I took this Hamburg newspaper from the table. - There she is. You didn’t compose, but translated, and translated it badly, because you don’t know French, you fool ”. What do you think? "No, he says, I have not read any newspapers, I have composed." “If so, then you are a traitor, and I will bring you to justice, and you will be hanged. Tell me, from whom did you get it? " - "I have not seen any newspapers, but I have composed." And so it remained. The count also called on his father: he stands his ground. And they were put on trial, and sentenced, it seems, to hard labor. Now the father has come to ask for him. But you cheesy boy! You know, a kind of merchant's son, a dandy, a seducer, he listened to lectures somewhere and really thinks that the devil is not his brother. What a young fellow! His father has an inn here near the Stone Bridge, so in the inn, you know, there is a large image of the Almighty God and a scepter is presented in one hand, a state in the other; so he took this image home for a few days and what did he do! Found a scoundrel painter ...

In the middle of this new story, Pierre was summoned to the commander-in-chief.
Pierre entered Count Rostopchin's office. Rostopchin, grimacing, rubbed his forehead and eyes with his hand, while Pierre entered. The short man said something, and as soon as Pierre entered, he fell silent and left.
- A! hello, great warrior, - said Rostopchin as soon as this man came out. - Heard about your prouesses [glorious exploits]! But that's not the point. Mon cher, entre nous, [Between us, my dear,] are you a freemason? - said Count Rostopchin in a stern tone, as if there was something wrong in this, but that he intended to forgive. Pierre was silent. - Mon cher, je suis bien informe, [My dear friend, I know everything well,] but I know that there are Freemasons and Freemasons, and I hope that you do not belong to those who, under the guise of saving the human race, want to destroy Russia.
- Yes, I am a Mason, - Pierre answered.
- Well, you see, my dear. You, I think, are not unaware that Messrs. Speransky and Magnitsky have been sent where they should be; the same was done with Mr. Klyucharyov, the same with others, who, under the guise of building the temple of Solomon, tried to destroy the temple of their fatherland. You can understand that there are reasons for this and that I could not have sent the local director of the post if he was not a harmful person. Now I know that you sent him yours. a carriage for getting out of town and even that you took papers from him for storage. I love you and do not wish you any harm, and as you are twice my age, then I, as a father, advise you to stop all intercourse with such people and leave here yourself as soon as possible.
- But what, Count, is Klyucharev's fault? Pierre asked.
“It’s my business to know and not yours to ask me,” Rostopchin cried out.
- If he is accused of spreading Napoleon's proclamations, then this has not been proven, - said Pierre (without looking at Rostopchin), - and Vereshchagin ...
- Nous y voila, [So it is,] - suddenly frowning, interrupting Pierre, Rostopchin screamed even louder than before. “Vereshchagin is a traitor and a traitor who will receive a well-deserved execution,” Rostopchin said with that fervor of anger with which people speak when remembering an insult. “But I did not summon you to discuss my affairs, but to give you advice or an order, if you wish. I ask you to stop communicating with gentlemen like Klyucharyov and leave here. And I will knock out the nonsense, whoever she is. - And, probably, realizing that he seemed to be shouting at Bezukhov, who was not guilty of anything yet, he added, taking Pierre's hand in a friendly way: - Nous sommes a la veille d "un desastre publique, et je n" ai pas le temps de dire des gentillesses a tous ceux qui ont affaire a moi. Sometimes my head is spinning! Eh! bien, mon cher, qu "est ce que vous faites, vous personnellement? [We are on the eve of a common disaster, and I have no time to be nice to everyone with whom I have business. So, my dear, what are you doing, you personally?]
- Mais rien, [Yes, nothing,] - Pierre answered, still not raising his eyes and not changing the expression of his thoughtful face.

An open heating system is the simplest and most non-volatile natural circulation system. Such a system is based on the laws of thermodynamics. At the outlet of the boiler, an increased pressure is created, then hot water passes through the pipes to an area with a lower pressure, losing temperature during its passage.

Then the cooled heat carrier returns back to the heating boiler, where it heats up again. There is a natural circulation of the coolant. The system operates exclusively on water, since the use of antifreeze for heating leads to their rapid evaporation.

V open system heat supply, the presence of an expansion tank is required, since the heated water expands. The expansion tank serves to receive excess water during expansion and return it to the system when it cools down, as well as to remove water in case of excessive water volume. The tank is not completely sealed, therefore water evaporates as a result of which it is necessary to constantly renew its level. An open heating system does not use a pump. The system is simple enough. Consists of pipes, steel expansion tank, radiators and boiler. Diesel engines are used, gas boilers and boilers for solid fuels, except electric ones.

In an open heating system, water circulates slowly. Therefore, the pipes during operation must warm up gradually to avoid damaging them and boiling the coolant. This can lead to premature wear of the equipment. If heating is not used in winter, then the water from the system must be drained, in order to avoid freezing of the pipeline.

In order for the circulation of the coolant to be carried out at the required level, it is necessary to install the heating boiler in a lower place in the system, and in the highest place to install expansion tank, for example, in the attic. In winter, the expansion tank must be insulated. When installing the pipeline in an open heating system, it is required to use a minimum number of turns, shaped and connecting parts.

In a closed heating system, all elements of the system are sealed, there is no water evaporation. The circulation is carried out using a pump. The so-called system forced circulation the coolant includes pipes, a boiler, radiators, an expansion tank, a circulation pump.

In a closed heating system, when the temperature rises, the expansion tank valve opens and takes in the excess coolant. When the temperature drops the circulation pump pumps it back into the system. In this heating system, the pressure is maintained within predetermined limits. Thanks to this, coolant deaeration function.

For the stable operation of the closed heating system, an expansion tank made of high-strength metal is also used. This is a closed tank, consisting of two halves, sealed towards each other.

Inside there is a membrane (diaphragm) made of high-strength heat-resistant rubber. Also inside there is a small gas volume(can be nitrogen, which is pumped in at the manufacturing plant, or air, which accumulates in the system as needed). The membrane divides the tank into parts: one part - where excess water flows when the heating system is heated, in the other part there is nitrogen or air that does not come into direct contact with water. Thus, heating medium enters the expansion tank and penetrates the membrane. When the coolant cools down, the gas behind the membrane begins to push it back into the system.

Differences between open and closed heating systems

There are the following distinctive features of open and closed heating systems:

At the location of the expansion tank. In an open heating system, the tank is located at the highest point of the system, and in a closed system, the expansion tank can be installed anywhere, even next to the boiler.
The closed heating system is isolated from atmospheric currents, which prevents air from entering. it increases service life. Due to the creation of additional pressure in the upper nodes of the system, the possibility of air congestion in the radiators located at the top.
Pipes are used in an open heating system with a large diameter, which creates inconvenience, and the installation of pipes is carried out at an angle to ensure circulation. It is not always possible to hide thick-walled pipes. To ensure everyone hydraulics rules it is necessary to take into account the slopes of the distribution of flows, the height of the rise, turns, constrictions, connection to radiators.
In a closed heating system, pipes of a smaller diameter are used, which reduces the cost of the design.
Also in a closed heating system it is important install the pump correctly, to avoid noise.

Benefits of an open heating system

easy system maintenance;
the absence of a pump ensures silent operation;
uniform heating of the heated room;
quick start and stop of the system;
independence from power supply, if there is no electricity in the house, then the system will be operational;
high reliability;
no special skills are required to install the system, first of all, the boiler is installed, the boiler power will depend on the heated area.

Disadvantages of an open heating system

the possibility of reducing the service life of the system when air enters, since heat transfer decreases, as a result of which corrosion appears, water circulation is disturbed, air plugs are formed;
air contained in an open heating system can cause cavitation, in which the elements of the system located in the cavitation zone, such as fittings, pipe surfaces, are destroyed;
possibility of freezing coolant in the expansion tank;
slow heating systems after switching on;
is necessary constant level control coolant in the expansion tank to prevent evaporation;
the inability to use antifreeze as a coolant;
cumbersome enough;
low efficiency.

Advantages of a closed heating system

easy installation;
there is no need to constantly monitor the level of the coolant;
possibility the use of antifreeze without fear of defrosting the heating system;
by increasing or decreasing the amount of coolant supplied to the system, you can regulate the temperature in room;
due to the lack of evaporation of water, the need to recharge it from external sources is reduced;
independent pressure regulation;
the system is economical and technological, has a longer service life;
the ability to connect additional heating sources to a closed heating system.

Disadvantages of a closed heating system

the main drawback is the dependence of the system on the availability constant power supply;
the pump requires electricity;
for emergency power supply, it is recommended to purchase a small generator;
if the tightness of the joints is broken, air may enter the system;
the dimensions of the expansion membrane tanks in closed rooms of a large area;
the tank is 60-30% filled with liquid, the smallest percentage of filling falls on large tanks; at large objects, tanks with an estimated volume of several thousand liters are used.
there is a problem with the placement of such tanks, special installations are used to maintain a certain pressure.

Everyone who is going to install a heating system chooses which system is easier and more reliable for him.

Open heating system, thanks to ease of use, high reliability, used for optimal heating small rooms. These can be small one-story country houses, as well as country houses.

A closed heating system is more modern and more complex. It is used in multi-storey buildings and cottages.